The Exponential Parallel System

A parallel system of $m$ independent components functions as long as at least one component survives. The system lifetime is \[ T = \max(T_1, \ldots, T_m), \qquad T_j \sim \mathrm{Exp}(\lambda_j). \]

The system density is the derivative of the system CDF $F_{\mathrm{sys}}(t) = \prod_{j=1}^{m} F_j(t) = \prod_{j=1}^{m}(1 - e^{-\lambda_j t})$: \[ f_{\mathrm{sys}}(t) = \sum_{j=1}^{m} f_j(t) \prod_{i \neq j} F_i(t) = \sum_{j=1}^{m} \lambda_j e^{-\lambda_j t} \prod_{i \neq j} \bigl(1 - e^{-\lambda_i t}\bigr). \]

Each summand $w_j(t) = f_j(t)\prod_{i \neq j} F_i(t)$ is the contribution from the event “component $j$ is the last to fail.”

# Create an exponential parallel system model with 3 components
model <- kofn(k = 3, m = 3, component = dfr_exponential())
print(model)
#> k-out-of-n System Likelihood Model
#> -----------------------------------
#>   System type: parallel (k=3, m=3)
#>   Component distribution: exponential 
#>   Estimation method: mle 
#>   Column conventions:
#>     lifetime: t 
#>     omega: omega 
#>     interval upper: t_upper

The kofn() constructor with k = m creates a parallel system. The model object carries the system structure, column name conventions, and dispatches to methods for loglik(), score(), hess_loglik(), fit(), and rdata().

Inclusion-Exclusion Expansion

The product $\prod_{i}(1 - e^{-\lambda_i t})$ cannot be differentiated or integrated term-by-term as written. The inclusion-exclusion expansion rewrites it as a finite signed sum of exponentials: \[ \prod_{i=1}^{m} \bigl(1 - e^{-\lambda_i t}\bigr) = \sum_{S \subseteq \{1,\ldots,m\}} (-1)^{|S|}\, e^{-(\sum_{i \in S} \lambda_i)\, t}. \]

This has $2^m$ terms — practical for moderate $m$ (up to $$15 components). Because every term is a simple exponential $e^{-rt}$, all integrals needed for censored-data likelihoods evaluate in closed form.

lam <- c(0.5, 0.3, 0.2)
ie <- ie_expand(lam)

# Display the expansion terms
data.frame(
  subset_size = sapply(seq_along(ie$sign), function(k) {
    sum(as.integer(intToBits(k - 1L))[1:3])
  }),
  sign = ie$sign,
  rate_sum = ie$rate_sum
)
#>   subset_size sign rate_sum
#> 1           0    1      0.0
#> 2           1   -1      0.5
#> 3           1   -1      0.3
#> 4           2    1      0.8
#> 5           1   -1      0.2
#> 6           2    1      0.7
#> 7           2    1      0.5
#> 8           3   -1      1.0

The first row ($S = \emptyset$) has sign $+1$ and rate sum $0$, contributing the constant term $1$. The three singleton subsets contribute $-e^{-\lambda_j t}$, the three pairs contribute $+e^{-(\lambda_i + \lambda_j)t}$, and the full set contributes $-e^{-(\lambda_1 + \lambda_2 + \lambda_3)t}$.

We can verify the expansion numerically:

t_val <- 2.0

# Direct product
direct <- prod(1 - exp(-lam * t_val))

# Via IE expansion
ie_val <- sum(ie$sign * exp(-ie$rate_sum * t_val))

c(direct = direct, ie_expansion = ie_val, difference = direct - ie_val)
#>       direct ie_expansion   difference 
#>      0.09403      0.09403      0.00000

The key functions built on this expansion are:

w_j_exact(t, par, j) — evaluates $w_j(t)$ at a single time point
w_j_integral(a, b, par, j) — closed-form $\int_a^b w_j(t)\,dt$
F_sys_exp(t, par) / S_sys_exp(t, par) — system CDF and survival

# The three w_j contributions at t = 2
sapply(1:3, function(j) w_j_exact(t_val, lam, j))
#> [1] 0.02736 0.03431 0.03824

# Their sum equals the system density
sum(sapply(1:3, function(j) w_j_exact(t_val, lam, j)))
#> [1] 0.09991

# System CDF and survival at t = 2
c(F_sys = F_sys_exp(t_val, lam), S_sys = S_sys_exp(t_val, lam))
#>   F_sys   S_sys 
#> 0.09403 0.90597

Likelihood Under Different Observation Types

The IE expansion gives closed-form log-likelihood contributions for all four observation types. Let $\boldsymbol{\lambda} = (\lambda_1, \ldots, \lambda_m)$ and $C_i \subseteq \{1, \ldots, m\}$ be the candidate set for observation $i$.

Exact observation at $t$: \[ \ell_i = \log \sum_{j \in C_i} w_j(t;\, \boldsymbol{\lambda}). \]

Right-censored at $t$ (system still functioning): \[ \ell_i = \log S_{\mathrm{sys}}(t;\, \boldsymbol{\lambda}). \]

Left-censored at $t$ (system already failed): \[ \ell_i = \log \frac{\sum_{j \in C_i} \int_0^{t} w_j(s)\,ds} {F_{\mathrm{sys}}(t;\, \boldsymbol{\lambda})}. \]

Interval-censored on $(a, b]$: \[ \ell_i = \log \frac{\sum_{j \in C_i} \int_a^{b} w_j(s)\,ds} {F_{\mathrm{sys}}(b) - F_{\mathrm{sys}}(a)}. \]

All integrals $\int_a^b w_j(s)\,ds$ are computed analytically by w_j_integral(). The loglik(model) closure handles all four types automatically:

set.seed(42)

# Generate data under Scheme 0 (system lifetime only, no censoring)
gen <- rdata(model)
df <- gen(theta = lam, n = 50)
head(df, 5)
#>        t omega
#> 1  6.355 exact
#> 2  5.498 exact
#> 3  3.764 exact
#> 4  9.446 exact
#> 5 17.799 exact

# Evaluate the log-likelihood at the true parameters
ll_fn <- loglik(model)
ll_fn(df, lam)
#> [1] -144.9

# Compare with a wrong parameter vector
ll_fn(df, c(1, 1, 1))
#> [1] -320.3

Maximum Likelihood Estimation

Data generation

We generate $n = 100$ system lifetimes from a 3-component parallel system with rates $\boldsymbol{\lambda} = (0.5, 0.3, 0.2)$ under Scheme 0 (system lifetime only — no component-level information).

set.seed(123)
theta_true <- c(0.5, 0.3, 0.2)
n <- 50

gen <- rdata(model)
df <- gen(theta = theta_true, n = n)

cat("Observations:", nrow(df), "\n")
#> Observations: 50
cat("Observation types:\n")
#> Observation types:
table(df$omega)
#> 
#> exact 
#>    50

Under the default observation scheme (exact), we observe only when the system fails, not which component failed last. This is the Scheme 0 (black-box) setting.

Fitting

The fit(model) closure performs multi-start L-BFGS-B optimization with Nelder-Mead fallback. Standard errors come from the observed Fisher information (inverse of the negative Hessian at the MLE).

fit_fn <- fit(model)
result <- fit_fn(df, n_starts = 1L)

# MLE estimates
coef(result)
#> [1] 0.2806 0.2804 0.3752

# Standard errors
sqrt(diag(vcov(result)))
#> [1] 0.2911 0.2897 0.3313

# 95% confidence intervals
confint(result)
#>           2.5%  97.5%
#> param1 -0.2899 0.8511
#> param2 -0.2875 0.8482
#> param3 -0.2741 1.0244

# Log-likelihood, AIC, BIC
c(loglik = logLik(result), AIC = AIC(result), BIC = BIC(result))
#> loglik    AIC    BIC 
#> -128.4  262.9  268.6

summary(result)
#> Maximum likelihood estimator of type solver_result is normally distributed.
#> The estimates of the parameters are given by:
#> [1] 0.2806 0.2804 0.3752
#> The standard error is  0.2911 0.2897 0.3313 .
#> The asymptotic 95% confidence interval of the parameters are given by:
#>           2.5%  97.5%
#> param1 -0.2899 0.8511
#> param2 -0.2875 0.8482
#> param3 -0.2741 1.0244
#> The MSE of the individual components in a multivariate estimator is:
#>          [,1]     [,2]     [,3]
#> [1,]  0.08473 -0.07158 -0.02457
#> [2,] -0.07158  0.08395 -0.02359
#> [3,] -0.02457 -0.02359  0.10974
#> The log-likelihood is  -128.4 .
#> The AIC is  262.9 .

Every method used above, coef, vcov, confint, logLik, AIC, BIC, summary, comes from algebraic.mle via its mle result class, not from kofn itself. kofn supplies the likelihood; the inference operations are inherited. See vignette("ecosystem") for the full walk through the rlang MLE stack.

Comparison with true values

est <- coef(result)
se <- sqrt(diag(vcov(result)))
ci <- confint(result)

comparison <- data.frame(
  component = 1:3,
  true = theta_true,
  estimate = est,
  se = se,
  ci_lower = ci[, 1],
  ci_upper = ci[, 2],
  covered = theta_true >= ci[, 1] & theta_true <= ci[, 2]
)
comparison
#>        component true estimate     se ci_lower ci_upper covered
#> param1         1  0.5   0.2806 0.2911  -0.2899   0.8511    TRUE
#> param2         2  0.3   0.2804 0.2897  -0.2875   0.8482    TRUE
#> param3         3  0.2   0.3752 0.3313  -0.2741   1.0244    TRUE

Permutation Symmetry

Under Scheme 0, all components are candidates for every observation. The log-likelihood is then invariant under permutation of the parameter vector: swapping $\lambda_1 \leftrightarrow \lambda_2$ yields the same log-likelihood value. This means there are $m!$ equivalent global maxima.

ll_fn <- loglik(model)

# Original parameter order
ll_original <- ll_fn(df, theta_true)

# Permuted parameters: swap components 1 and 3
theta_permuted <- theta_true[c(3, 1, 2)]
ll_permuted <- ll_fn(df, theta_permuted)

# Reversed order
theta_reversed <- rev(theta_true)
ll_reversed <- ll_fn(df, theta_reversed)

data.frame(
  ordering = c("original (0.5, 0.3, 0.2)",
               "permuted (0.2, 0.5, 0.3)",
               "reversed (0.2, 0.3, 0.5)"),
  loglik = c(ll_original, ll_permuted, ll_reversed),
  difference = c(0, ll_permuted - ll_original, ll_reversed - ll_original)
)
#>                   ordering loglik difference
#> 1 original (0.5, 0.3, 0.2) -129.1          0
#> 2 permuted (0.2, 0.5, 0.3) -129.1          0
#> 3 reversed (0.2, 0.3, 0.5) -129.1          0

The log-likelihood values are identical (up to machine precision). This symmetry has two important consequences:

Initialization matters. The optimizer may converge to any of the $m!$ equivalent modes. The default_init_exp() function uses a spread initialization — rates spaced as lam0 * seq(0.5, 1.5, length.out = m) — to break the symmetry and consistently find the ascending-order mode.
Sorted matching for Monte Carlo. When evaluating estimator performance across replications, we sort both the estimates and the true parameters in ascending order before computing bias, RMSE, and coverage. This resolves the label-switching problem.

Monte Carlo Validation

We assess the MLE’s finite-sample performance via Monte Carlo simulation. For each replicate, we generate data from the true model, fit the MLE, and record the estimates, standard errors, and confidence interval coverage.

# Small demo: R = 5 replications for illustration (keeps build < 30 sec).
# Set run_long = TRUE above for the full R = 100 simulation.
set.seed(2026)

R <- 3
n_mc <- 50
alpha <- 0.05

theta_true_mc <- c(0.5, 0.3, 0.2)
theta_sorted <- sort(theta_true_mc)
m_mc <- length(theta_true_mc)

gen_mc <- rdata(model)
fit_mc <- fit(model)

estimates <- matrix(NA, nrow = R, ncol = m_mc)
se_hat <- matrix(NA, nrow = R, ncol = m_mc)
ci_lower <- matrix(NA, nrow = R, ncol = m_mc)
ci_upper <- matrix(NA, nrow = R, ncol = m_mc)
converged <- logical(R)

for (r in seq_len(R)) {
  df_r <- gen_mc(theta = theta_true_mc, n = n_mc)
  res_r <- tryCatch(fit_mc(df_r, n_starts = 1L), error = function(e) NULL)

  if (!is.null(res_r) && !any(is.na(coef(res_r)))) {
    ord <- order(coef(res_r))
    estimates[r, ] <- coef(res_r)[ord]
    se_r <- sqrt(diag(vcov(res_r)))
    se_hat[r, ] <- se_r[ord]
    ci_r <- confint(res_r, level = 1 - alpha)
    ci_lower[r, ] <- ci_r[ord, 1]
    ci_upper[r, ] <- ci_r[ord, 2]
    converged[r] <- TRUE
  }
}

Results

After sorting each replicate’s estimates in ascending order (to match the sorted true values $\lambda_{(1)} = 0.2 < \lambda_{(2)} = 0.3 < \lambda_{(3)} = 0.5$), we compute bias, RMSE, and coverage:

ok <- converged & complete.cases(estimates)
cat("Converged replications:", sum(ok), "of", R, "\n\n")
#> Converged replications: 3 of 3

est_ok <- estimates[ok, , drop = FALSE]
se_ok <- se_hat[ok, , drop = FALSE]
ci_lo <- ci_lower[ok, , drop = FALSE]
ci_hi <- ci_upper[ok, , drop = FALSE]

bias <- colMeans(est_ok) - theta_sorted
rmse <- sqrt(colMeans((est_ok - matrix(theta_sorted, nrow = sum(ok),
                                        ncol = m_mc, byrow = TRUE))^2))
coverage <- colMeans(
  ci_lo <= matrix(theta_sorted, nrow = sum(ok), ncol = m_mc, byrow = TRUE) &
  ci_hi >= matrix(theta_sorted, nrow = sum(ok), ncol = m_mc, byrow = TRUE)
)
mean_se <- colMeans(se_ok)

mc_table <- data.frame(
  component = paste0("lambda_(", 1:m_mc, ")"),
  true = theta_sorted,
  mean_est = colMeans(est_ok),
  bias = bias,
  rmse = rmse,
  mean_se = mean_se,
  coverage_95 = coverage
)
mc_table
#>    component true mean_est     bias    rmse mean_se coverage_95
#> 1 lambda_(1)  0.2   0.2151  0.01513 0.02827 0.06274      1.0000
#> 2 lambda_(2)  0.3   0.2888 -0.01124 0.08127 0.11225      1.0000
#> 3 lambda_(3)  0.5   0.6770  0.17699 0.54061 0.60901      0.6667

Key observations:

Bias should be near zero for a correctly specified MLE.
RMSE reflects finite-sample variability; the smallest rate ($\lambda_{(1)} = 0.2$) is typically estimated with larger relative error because it contributes least to the system density (its component is least likely to be the last to fail).
Coverage near 0.95 validates the Hessian-based confidence intervals. Note that the SE ratio artifact — Hessian-based SEs computed at the unsorted MLE, then reordered — can cause mild under- or over-coverage.

Observation Functors

The observe_* family of functions controls how system lifetimes are recorded. Each functor maps a true system lifetime to an observed record (time, observation type, and optional interval bounds).

Scheme 0: System lifetime with right-censoring

observe_right_censor(tau) is the default: systems failing before $\tau$ are observed exactly, and those surviving past $\tau$ are right-censored.

# Different censoring times
obs_light <- observe_right_censor(tau = 20)   # Light censoring
obs_heavy <- observe_right_censor(tau = 5)    # Heavy censoring
obs_none  <- observe_right_censor()           # No censoring (tau = Inf)

# Example: system fails at t = 8
obs_light(8)   # exact
#> $t
#> [1] 8
#> 
#> $omega
#> [1] "exact"
#> 
#> $t_upper
#> [1] NA
obs_heavy(8)   # right-censored at tau = 5
#> $t
#> [1] 5
#> 
#> $omega
#> [1] "right"
#> 
#> $t_upper
#> [1] NA
obs_none(8)    # exact
#> $t
#> [1] 8
#> 
#> $omega
#> [1] "exact"
#> 
#> $t_upper
#> [1] NA

Effect of censoring on estimation

Heavier right-censoring discards information about long-lived systems, increasing estimator variance — especially for the smallest rate (the most reliable component, which is most likely to be the last survivor).

set.seed(99)

tau_values <- c(5, Inf)

cat(sprintf("%-8s  %6s  %10s  %10s  %10s\n",
            "tau", "n_right", "est_lam1", "est_lam2", "est_lam3"))
#> tau       n_right    est_lam1    est_lam2    est_lam3
cat(strrep("-", 56), "\n")
#> --------------------------------------------------------

for (tau in tau_values) {
  obs_fn <- if (is.finite(tau)) observe_right_censor(tau) else NULL
  df_tau <- gen(theta = theta_true, n = 50,
                observe = obs_fn)
  n_right <- sum(df_tau$omega == "right")

  res_tau <- tryCatch(
    fit_fn(df_tau, n_starts = 1L),
    error = function(e) NULL
  )

  if (!is.null(res_tau)) {
    est <- sort(coef(res_tau))
    cat(sprintf("%-8s  %6d  %10.4f  %10.4f  %10.4f\n",
                if (is.finite(tau)) as.character(tau) else "Inf",
                n_right, est[1], est[2], est[3]))
  }
}
#> 5             28      0.1229      0.6073      3.3339
#> Inf            0      0.2554      0.2554      0.2554

Scheme 1: Periodic inspection

Under observe_periodic(delta, tau), the system is inspected at times $\delta, 2\delta, 3\delta, \ldots$ The failure time is known only to lie within the inspection interval containing it (interval-censored).

obs_periodic <- observe_periodic(delta = 2, tau = 30)

# System fails at t = 7.3 -> interval-censored to (6, 8]
obs_periodic(7.3)
#> $t
#> [1] 6
#> 
#> $omega
#> [1] "interval"
#> 
#> $t_upper
#> [1] 8

# System survives past tau = 30 -> right-censored
obs_periodic(35)
#> $t
#> [1] 30
#> 
#> $omega
#> [1] "right"
#> 
#> $t_upper
#> [1] NA

set.seed(42)
df_s1 <- gen(theta = theta_true, n = 50,
             observe = observe_periodic(delta = 2, tau = 50))
table(df_s1$omega)
#> 
#> interval 
#>       50

# Fit under interval censoring
res_s1 <- fit_fn(df_s1, n_starts = 1L)
sort(coef(res_s1))
#> [1] 0.1527 0.4575 0.5817

Interval censoring retains more information than pure right-censoring at the same study duration, because every failure is localized to a finite window rather than lost entirely.

Exponential Parallel Systems: Closed-Form MLE via Inclusion-Exclusion